2009年全國碩士研究生入學(xué)考試英語試題精析

　　Part B

　　Directions:

　　In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions (41��45), choose the most suitable one from the list A�睪 to fit into each of the numbered blank. There are two extra choices, which do not fit in any of the gaps. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points)

　　Coinciding with the groundbreaking theory of biological evolution proposed by British naturalist Charles Darwin in the 1860s, British social philosopher Herbert Spencer put forward his own theory of biological and cultural evolution. Spencer argued that all worldly phenomena, including human societies, changed over time, advancing toward perfection. 41. .

　　American social scientist Lewis Henry Morgan introduced another theory of cultural evolution in the late 1800s. Morgan, along with Tylor, was one of the founders of modern anthropology. In his work, he attempted to show how all aspects of culture changed together in the evolution of societies. 42. .

　　In the early 1900s in North America, German�瞓orn American anthropologist Franz Boas developed a new theory of culture known as historical particularism. Historical particularism, which emphasized the uniqueness of all cultures, gave new direction to anthropology. 43. .

　　Boas felt that the culture of any society must be understood as the result of a unique history and not as one of many cultures belonging to a broader evolutionary stage or type of culture. 44. .

　　Historical particularism became a dominant approach to the study of culture in American anthropology, largely through the influence of many students of Boas. But a number of anthropologists in the early 1900s also rejected the particularist theory of culture in favor of diffusionism. Some attributed virtually every important cultural achievement to the inventions of a few, especially gifted peoples that, according to diffusionists, then spread to other cultures. 45. .

　　Also in the early 1900s, French sociologist Emile Durkheim developed a theory of culture that would greatly influence anthropology. Durkheim proposed that religious beliefs functioned to reinforce social solidarity. An interest in the relationship between the function of society and culture—known as functionalism—became a major theme in European, and especially British, anthropology.

　　在19世紀(jì)60年代，英國自然學(xué)家查爾斯·達(dá)爾文提出突破性的生物進(jìn)化理論，與此巧合的是，英國社會哲學(xué)家赫波特·斯賓塞也提出了自己的生物和文化演變理論。斯賓塞認(rèn)為，所有世俗的現(xiàn)象，包括人類社會，都隨著時間的推移而改變，走向完善。他認(rèn)為，人類進(jìn)化的特點(diǎn)是他稱為“適者生存”的斗爭，弱小種族和社會最終必將被更強(qiáng)大、更先進(jìn)的種族和社會所取代。

　　19世紀(jì)后期，美國社會科學(xué)家路易斯·亨利·摩根引進(jìn)另一種文化演變理論。摩根幫助創(chuàng)立了現(xiàn)代人類學(xué)，該學(xué)科是對人類社會、習(xí)俗和信仰的科學(xué)研究，因此他也成為了最早的人類學(xué)家之一。摩根在他的著作中試圖展示社會進(jìn)程中文化在所有方面發(fā)生的變化。因此，他認(rèn)為，不同方面的文化，如家庭結(jié)構(gòu)，婚姻形式，親屬關(guān)系類別，財(cái)產(chǎn)所有權(quán)，政府形式，技術(shù)和糧食生產(chǎn)制度，都隨著社會的發(fā)展而改變。

　　20世紀(jì)初期，在北美，德裔美國人類學(xué)家弗蘭茲·博厄斯形成了一種新的文化理論，被稱為歷史特殊論。這種文化理論強(qiáng)調(diào)所有文化的獨(dú)特性，它為人類學(xué)提供了新的方向。其他人類學(xué)家認(rèn)為，文化創(chuàng)新，如發(fā)明，只有一個來源，從一個社會傳遞至另一社會。這一理論被稱為擴(kuò)散主義。

　　博厄斯認(rèn)為，任何社會的文化必須被理解為源自一種獨(dú)特歷史，而不是許多文化屬于的一個更廣泛的文化進(jìn)化階段或文化類型的一種。為了盡可能完整地研究特定文化，博厄斯精通了語言學(xué)(對語言的研究)和體質(zhì)人類學(xué)(對人類生物學(xué)和解剖學(xué)的研究)。

　　在博厄斯許多弟子的影響下，“歷史特殊論”成為美國人類學(xué)文化研究中占主導(dǎo)的方法。但在20世紀(jì)初，一些人類學(xué)家還是不認(rèn)同文化特殊性理論，而是支持?jǐn)U散主義。一些人幾乎將每一個重要的文化成就歸功于少數(shù)某些人，特別是天才的發(fā)明，之后，發(fā)明傳播到其他文化中去，這就是擴(kuò)散主義者的觀點(diǎn)。例如，英國人類學(xué)家格拉夫頓·埃利特·史密斯和佩里由于資料不足而提出過這樣的錯誤觀點(diǎn)，即農(nóng)業(yè)，陶器制作，冶金這些都起源于古埃及，之后擴(kuò)散到世界各地。事實(shí)上，所有這些文化的發(fā)展都在不同的時間發(fā)生在不同的地方。

　　另外，在20世紀(jì)初，法國社會學(xué)家迪爾凱姆提出了一種可能會對人類學(xué)產(chǎn)生極大影響的文化理論。迪爾凱姆認(rèn)為宗教信仰能夠在加強(qiáng)社會團(tuán)結(jié)方面起作用。關(guān)注社會職能和文化之間的關(guān)系，成為歐洲，特別是英國人類學(xué)的一個重要課題。

　　[A]Other anthropologists believed that cultural innovations, such as inventions, had a single origin and passed from society to society. This theory was known as diffusionism.

　　[B]In order to study particular cultures as completely as possible, he became skilled in linguistics, the study of languages, and in physical anthropology, the study of human biology and anatomy.

　　[C]He argued that human evolution was characterized by a struggle he called the “survival of the fittest,” in which weaker races and societies must eventually be replaced by stronger, more advanced races and societies.

　　[D]They also focused on important rituals that appeared to preserve a people’s social structure, such as initiation ceremonies that formally signify children’s entrance into adulthood.

　　[E]Thus, in his view, diverse aspects of culture, such as the structure of families, forms of marriage, categories of kinship, ownership of property, forms of government, technology, and systems of food production, all changed as societies evolved.

　　[F]Supporters of the theory viewed as a collection of integrated parts that work together to keep a society functioning.

　　[G]For example, British anthropologists Grafton Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry incorrectly suggested, on the basis of inadequate information, that farming, pottery making, and metallurgy all originated in ancient Egypt and diffused throughout the world. In fact, all of these cultural developments occurred separately at different times in many parts of the world.